Vita Galainus Apollo Conall
I. Departing Roma
On the Rainy Road
Galainus heaved a sigh, sucked in his gut, and hefted his wicker basket higher upon his back once again. The weather had been rainy. Rain, rain, rain, rain! It was like the tale the Jews told. Forty days and forty nights! He wondered when Marcus Aurelius would order an ark built at the Temple of Neptune.
The first time Galainus entered Roma it was as a slave. His father, a scribe in Eburacum[1], had gone into debt. Too few denarii for too many pots of ink and rolls of parchment. So there was nothing much else to do but to sell the children off to slavery! This was how he had ended up in Roma.
At least, this was the story Galainus told others. Sometimes he ended it differently. Sometimes he changed the middle. For Galainus was Hibernian of lineage and a born storyteller. And if a story was not outrageous enough, he'd embellish it with fanciful flourishes like the great shanachie of Éire, which the Romans called Hibernia[2].
It was under such servile conditions Centurio Marcus Antonius Lucius found Galainus and arranged for his freedom—so long as he was willing to join the Legio! Cohors IV (Quartae) of Legio X (Deci) Fretensis. After some years learning Latin in Rome, Galainus was good enough to pick out the words for "Fourth Cohort" and "Tenth Legion," but he was curiously delighted to find out the surname "Fretensis" meant "of the Sea Straights." He always had an affinity for the sea.
Galainus never considered the military as a lad, and yet here he was: over the age of forty and now (or again) a member of the Roman army as an exploratore!
His new role was to scout ahead of Marcus' Cohors and guide troops through the terrain of Britainnia. Though Legio X was normally stationed in Judaea, for reasons known only to the commanders of the Legions and the Emperor himself a detachment was being sent to Britannia. Marcus asked if Galainus was ready to be a native scout under his command.
This would be easy, wouldn't it? After all, was not Galainus Apollo Conall a renown expert in the geography, peoples and customs of the northern extents of Britannia?
When people pointed out that he hadn't been to Britannia since his childhood, and even then he had not traveled far outside the lands of the Parisi and Coritani tribes, he'd gregariously assure and concerns and recite a few tales to show he remembered a goodly bit of his homeland. Though he made it sound like he walked these places, what was more true was that Galainus could recite tales of steps made by his father and grandfather, claiming such deeds as his own. He knew it was better to properly crediting his forebears, yet he spoke such tales so convincingly that at times even he believed he had been there at some time in his life!
Besides, since most people in Rome had never been to Britannia themselves, how could they dispute his words?
Galainus had a few times met true shanachie telling tales for coins in Eburacum when he was a child, and even saw one in Roma when he was an adult. They played their strange tall harps, and told the greatest stories about the heroes of ages. All from memory! No reading from scrolls like the Romans did. They were like the Greek actors. Even better! It was grand. Mnemosyne be praised!
In his mind he fancied himself a great poet. He'd boast of his own oratory powers. "Ovid? You like his poetry? Wait until you hear mine!"
Only, he often forgot his lines and needed to read from his scrolls. He was the butt of several jokes, yet didn't mind much at all. At least he could make people laugh!
As he walked in the soaking rain, he was painfully aware of other truths besides his aching feet and back. Not resting for a moment as his feet repeatedly trod the paving stones of the Via Cassia[3], he cracked his back and was glad he had escaped the cracking of scourges and whips. He was always a good slave, so had never been harshly beaten. But he had been threatened enough by such prospects to wish not to return to such straights.
He had indeed been freed by Centurio Marcus to serve in the Legio, but he swiftly changed his mind about being a soldier and practically abandoned his oaths of service to the field command, instead serving as a scribe at the military headquarters in Roma. ("Only temporarily!" he had assured the Centurio.)
That was seven years ago now. Almost eight. He had signed up for the Legio in good faith, but after his first march with Marcus, wincing at his torn-up feet, having had to pick out tough-as-hobnails prickly seed pods from of his soles, Galainus nearly fled the life of the field army. He arranged to have a position assigned in the capital performing logistical and scribal tasks for the Legions, avoiding service in the provinces scrupulously.
Recent circumstances, which he was purposefully vague about, suddenly required Galainus to face his obligations to the Centurio. So he had come to Marcus and asked for a field position. Yes, anywhere but Roma sounded good right about now!
Thus the Centurio chose for him the role of exploratore for his Cohors. A scout.
"I need someone who knows northern Britannia."
Of course! Who would know the north of Britannia better than Galianus Apollo Conall? Was he not born in Eburacum?
"I thought you said you were from Petuaria?"
Well, wasn't that close enough?
Apparently it was, because no sooner had Galainus offered his services than he found himself laden with wicker pack, helmet, spear, and all the other accouterments of a freedman exploratore.
What? No horse?
No. Apparently not.
The vehiculatio, the Imperial posting system such as used by the Imperial courier service, the cursus publicus, could make 200 milia passuum per day in an emergency by changing horses at regular intervals. Yet this was reserved for high-born men and army personnel far higher up on the Roman hierarchy. Galainus would have to walk.
And thus, his first duty as an exploratore was an excursion on foot between Roma and a few military colonies. From there to the Danuvia Flumen[4], and then on to the Rhenus Flumen[5] frontiers. At the mouth of the Rhenus, at Praetorium Agrippinae[6], he was to board a ship to take him to Britannia. He was practically home at last!
Resting for Prandium
Before we get ahead of ourselves, thought Galianus, let's consider what we have now before us: a long trip from Roma to Colonia Veneria[7] and Brixia[8], where the Tenth's ex-legionnaires retired. As an exploratore, it was his first task to find these cities in Italia.
On his march out of Roma, he had stopped to pay homage to Venus at her temple and pray for safe passage at the Ara Pacis, Augustus' Altar of Peace. The latter ironically stood on the Campus Martius—the Plain of Mars, god of War. Galainus prayed fervently that he would find love and peace on the road. While he was a warrior, the last thing he wanted to suffer from was being waylaid alone on the road. And the thing he most hoped to find on the road was a wife!
Since leaving behind the city, he had long ago crossed the Pons Mulvius[9] over the turbulently-flowing Tiberis Flumen[10] and passed by a few towns. The rains had swelled the river and it was even flowing outside of its banks in places, he had heard. He then passed by the ancient Etruscan city of Veii[11] nestled and hidden in a nearby valley to the east. He rested for a bit and leaned on his spear. The drizzle was steady but it was not the torrent he had experienced in the morning. After a while he kept moving again.
In a second rest, he sat and ate his prandium—a luncheon of some bread, meat, cheese, olives and fruit he had bought in Roma before departing. He had plenty of food upon him for the march. It was early in the afternoon, and there were still many hours before the sun set. He gazed at the overcast sky and was glad the air was almost dry now. But the ground was not. As he sat on his damp cloak under a tree, his back facing to the west, he enjoyed the taste of wine and grunted at the stray bits of dry crumbling cheese that escaped his grasp and tumbled onto the mud.
He marched north along the the Via Cassia. He had his sights upon Baccanae[12] by dusk. If he could achieve that city, the next day would be an easier march to Sutrium[13]. Ahead along the Via Cassia in a few days stretched the Via Traiana Nova[14]. It diverged from the Via Cassia north out of Volsinii Novi[15] beside the Volsiniensis Lacus[16]. This helpfully straightened the route of the old Via Cassia for a bit, bypassing the older Etruscan Urbi Vetus[17]. It then joined back into the Via Cassia near the crossing of the often-stagnant and slow-flowing Clanis Flumen[18]. Galainus was a bit concerned because with the rains the river might actually be far from stagnant.
Perhaps, he hoped, the weather would dry up in the next few days.
All this was his passage through the old Etruria valley. Land of the Etruscans.
He remembered other names further in his trip only barely. Once north of Clusium[19] up the Clanis valley, he would eventually cross the watershed into the valley of the Arnus Fluvium[20]. There, he would find Arretium[21], and follow the river to Florentia[22]. Thereafter Galainus' mind fogged. There was supposed to be a road north from there through the Appenines. Finally he would get out of the mountains near Bononia[23].
"Find Bononia," Marcus had instructed him. "You can't miss it. From there, take the Via Aemilia[24] west."
Right. Find the Via Aemilia. "The Imitating Way." Perhaps it could also mean "The Rivaling Way." Heading west, he would eventually come to Placentia[25] along the Padus Flumen[26]. The Via Postumia[27] would then cut back north and east and enter Venetia[28] and come at last to Colonia Veneria—the Colony of Venus. It sounded delightful!
In their last counsel before Galainus left, Marcus and he agreed it was better to take the main road than to wonder about the conditions on the less-travelled route through Brixellum and a ferry across the rain-flooded Padus.
If all this sounded complicated, fortunately he had all this written down. He prayed to the heavens his scrolls were not getting soaked and ruined under the skin used to cover his wicker pack. Otherwise this would be a long trip indeed!
Upon visiting both Colonia Veneria and Brixia (which was mercifully not far to the north), he was to drop off some scrolls and pick up others to bring to his Centurio. Marcus would be taking another road. They would meet up again in Eburacum in Britannia before heading to the Wall.
Then was to come his next great task. From Brixia the road east to Colonia Emona[29] would be another 250 miles—another two weeks or so. He was supposed to travel inland across Pannonia Superior[30] and Pannonia Inferior[31], through the towns of Siscia[32] and Mursa[33] to finally arrive at Cornacum[34] along the Danuvius, in the land of the Cornacates. This was one of the Pannonian Limes, the frontier fortifications of the Empire.
There he was to fetch more scrolls from members of the Pannonian Frontier defenses for the Centurio. The greatest challenge was that Marcomanni, Quadi and other barbarian tribes had crossed the Danuvius Flumen early in the reign of Marcus Aurelius, back when Lucius Aurelius Verus was still alive. These barbarian hordes were still spread out across Pannonia as far south as Opitergium[35] near Iulia Concordia[36]. This would make traveling across the north of Italia on the Via Postumia frought with peril.
When Galainus wondered why the Centurio did not send the cursus publicus to fetch his scrolls. Marcus explained all of this was part of his testing and training. He was to show that he could explore and march across the empire afoot and alone, surviving in potentially hostile-controlled territory. He was to not antagonize the Quadi or Marcomanni, but simply observe. The fact that he would be dressed as a Celt, and not a Roman, could be seen as a disguise. When Galainus asked whether they might kill him as a spy, the Centurio looked him in the eye and smiled:
"Firmitas et Honorare!"
Why was Marcus always in such a chipper mood about marching into enemy-held lands? Where did he get such valor? It made no sense to Galainus. But he was now committed to the path. He replied with a bit of irony, trying to muster some positive feelings for the adventure:
"Gratias, Centurio! Die dulci fruere!" — Thanks, Centurio! Have a nice day!
Why, asked Galainus, was he to head east to the far stretches of Pannonia Inferior as opposed to heading straight north over the passes to Raetia[37] or directly to Germania Superior[38]? Other than picking up scrolls and dodging barbarians in search of plunder, of course.
The answer was given by the Centurio soberly and in earnestness. Supposedly there was a shrine to deceased Illyrian Cornacates who had asked the Romans for help in Pannonia during the Illyrian revolt centuries ago. Help had not reached them in time, and they died defending the Roman Empire. Tiberius and Germanicus subdued the province, yet all that could be done then was to bury the dead.
Centurio Marcus thought it well for Galainus to find this shrine to the Fallen Cornacates, now well over a century of years old, and pay respects to the people who were not Romans, but who believed in the virtues of Roma, and who had died in the defense of the Senate and the People of Roma.
"Since you too are not directly Roman by blood, but you are allied in your heart, you should see the place where these people died, and understand what they fought for. You should see for yourself how barbaric treachery can destroy people who may love a nation and a people not their own."
Thus he was to see if he could find the place where the fallen Illyrian Cornacates lay.
"If you can find this place, which remains but a mention in the history of our Legio, then you can find any spot in the Empire!"
The only thing more obscure to find was a lost gold coin lost from the Legio spoken of in the apocryphal tale. It was apparently lost near Timacum Minus[39] on the road from the goldsmiths and mints in Aureliana[40] to the provincial town of Nissus[41] in Moesia[42] earlier during the reign of Marcus Aurelius. "Now, if you can find that, you'd have to have the eyes of Aquila and Fortuna's blessing!"
Yes, of course. Aquila's blessing. For a moment as he marched, Galainus dropped his eyes to the paving stones and checked the cracks to see if there were any lost coins. There was no sun to glint off metal, so all he saw was mud and puddles and a few spring flowers making their early debut. A few yellow and violet blossoms here and there drinking up the cold rain. He wish he knew what they were called.
There was another important reason for the trip. With the overrunning raids of the Quadi and the Marcomanni, the Centurio wanted him to scout the area and bring him a report of what the frontier was like. How the current people of the land were defending against the invaders. How their spirits fared, and how strong or desperate their situation stood at this time. He was also to watch the legions, the alae, and the other auxilia to see how they organized themselves.
It made sense. The actual "Roman" Romans were the minority now. The Romans, like Centurio Marcus, needed to understand the alliances of the peoples that were all working for the good of the Empire, even if few of them bore the typical Italic features of centuries past. They were political Romans, not blood Romans.
One day, if Galainus could fulfill his duties as a Roman in the military, he too would be granted citizenship. He hoped that if he ever had children, they too would be free citizens of the Empire. For now he was a freedman, whose bond was pledged to the Legio and the Emperor.
Roma was truly cosmopolitan, to borrow the Greek word. People from Europa, Africa, and Asia all intermingled, intermarried, and interlocuted naturally and easily. Greek philosophers, Aegyptian scribes and Hebraic scholars sat side-by-side with him at the sumptuous dinners of the capital city of the world.
For now, Roma and all its pleasant populous was behind him. Before him rose the wet, cold, cloudy road north through the hills of Italia. And beyond that, the wild lands of Pannonia.
The Illyrian Gods
While he was in Roma, Galainus had been able to speak with a Greek historian. Once Galainus paid a few coins to honor Clio, Muse of History, the old Greek teacher told him what he knew about the gods of Dalmatia[43] and Pannonia. The Greek historian assured him they worshipped the same gods as in ancient Illyria[44]. If not, this was still the closest that Galainus discovered given the time he had before he left for the march. He was sure the tale was be worth hearing nonetheless.
The chief gods of the Illyrians were Ou, the god of Heaven, and Genusus, the goddess of the Earth.
Their first twin children included Mikon, god of Friendship and his twin brother Zeau, who ruled Intelligence. They were both born as snakes. Galainus thought it odd that the Illyrians chose a snake for friendship, because so many cultures saw the serpent as treacherous. Almost to confirm his worst fears, the Illyrian and Pannonian people had a reputation for being backward, uncultivated, bloodthirsty and treacherous.
In other words, a typical Roman border province! Were they so different than the Britons or the German tribes? Not really. All were treacherous, superstitious and one more thing. He once learned another Greek word: xenophobic. Afraid of outsiders. Actually, probably more hateful than fearful. Yet a Mithraic cultist from Tarsus[45] once told him that hate stems from fear, deep down. That made sense to Galainus.
Reflecting on this, he realized he did not hate the pavement stones nor the cold wet puddles. He knew they meant him no ill-will. So he splashed and tromped a bit playfully again as he marched. His helmet clattered, and his spear and shield clanged as he carried them.
He could tell his back would be a bundle of bones and aching muscles when he rested tonight. But he had no need to hate nor fear the road he walked. After all, so many others traveled it before him. He was safe in the confines of the Roman empire. He was dressed as a warrior, of the exploratores.
He was more than safe. He was projecting and producing safety upon the road. And who knows how many would travel it after him? All in the footsteps of his protective presence.
Speaking about water and warfare, the rest of the Illyrian pantheon also included the gods Radon of the Oceans, and Korrotos of War. Then there were the goddesses Broket of Food and Fortune, Shkumbe of Love and Beauty, and the last was the recursively named daughter of Genusus: Genusus.
Keeping in mythological and Celtic custom, both the sons Mikon and Zeau co-married their sister Genusus. As Julius Caesar himself observed, it was not uncommon amongst the Celts to have a common wife which bore children for many men. Sometimes brothers would share a wife, or an extended family would all share her. She would have children with fathers and their sons. They would all protect her and treat the children as the issue of the first man to introduce her to the clan. The Romans found this repugnant.
However, didn't the Romans have their gods marry their own sisters? Galainus found this just as puzzling. Wasn't the point of marriage to bring in new blood to the tribe? New spirits from other peoples? Typical Roman hypocrisy! Ah well. He was a soldier, not a priest.
Unlike Mars, the god of War which the Romans idolized and readily welcomed, the Illyrian Korrotos was banished from his land. He later married his sister Broket, and was allowed back to the land. Apparently womanly food and good fortune could tame war and make him a happy husband, which Galainus thought was rather obvious once he thought about it.
Likewise Rodon of the seas was banished. He lived in the Caves of Rodon by the Dalmatian coast. He took Shkumbe for his bride. Galianus heard many say the Hadriaticum Mare[46] could indeed make anyone wish to leave their lands and live in a cave nearby just to hear the sea because it was so beautiful. So he supposed this was true also.
The Roman Emperor Publius Aelius Traianus Hadrianus also loved the Illyrian provinces, especially Pannonia Inferior. It was one of his favorite places to visit. Hadrian ruled there as the first provincial governor of the newly-defined Pannonia Inferior before his ascension to the imperial throne. Before he had the Wall built.
Since this expedition to Britannia was inextricably connected to the Imperator Hadrian, it seemed appropriate for Galainus' first field mission to walk the land where the glorious successor to Trajan worked and vacationed.
The Limes of the Danuvius Frontier would be curious to compare to the Wall in any regard.
* * *
Legio Deci Fretensis
The Eyes of the great eagle Aquila? Galainus felt he was lucky to have eyes at all! He kept secret his eyesight was not as sharp as it had been in his younger days. For a scout, he did quite a bit of squinting at the distance. Even if the distance was less than a bowshot.
In the drizzling rain, he had to wipe his face now and then and often squinted as much to keep the wind-swept water out of his eyes as much as to adjust his vision over the distance. Being a scribe, often working late into the night with inkpot and crouched over scrolls, had taken away his vision at distance.
Perhaps one day he'd be a great blind poet! But for now, he'd need to keep that secret as best he could. It wouldn't do Legio Deci any good to have a half-blind scout!
The Tenth. They had a reputation of being hard-as-nails. Originally drawn up two centuries ago by Octavian (who became enthroned in heaven as Augustus Caesar), they heralded from Sicilia[47] and the southern tip of Italia where the Bruttii tribe lived[48]. "Of the Straights" referred to the treacherous straights of the Siculum Fretum[49], and the harrowing navigation required between Scylla[50] and whirlpool of Charybdis[51]. Their very name conjured tales of brave Ulysses. Also those tales mortal mariners who lived nearby this hazard, constantly watching the treacherous waters and navigating them bravely and safely.
If he served for a full year in the Legio, Galainus would be permitted the blue cloak of a Roman marine. It was a special legionary honor reserved for those who proved their mettle.
At its inception Legio Deci's first actions were in the battles against Sextus Pompeius at Mylae[52] (not to be confused with the great naval battle against Hannibal where the corvus was first employed) and Naulochus[53]. After defending the Sicilian grain for the people of Roma against the usurper, and their victory at Actium[54] over Marc Antony, the Legio traveled across many lands in defense of the Empire.
They were stationed for a while along the Danuvius frontier, then called to Syria[55] and Judaea[56], ably serving in the wars against the Jewish revolt and serving as a bulwark in the defense of the empire against the repeated machinations of Parthia[57]. They were still stationed along the eastern frontiers.
Route to the Danuvius Frontier
Galainus knew part of the trip already. Or at least, was familiar with the general direction of march. He had been to Aquincum[58] and spent some time in the land of the Azali in Pannonia Inferior some years ago. He was still a slave then, following as a scribe for his wealthy master. He had some free time to wander about a festival and to see gladiatorial combat. He loved the fools and minstrels of the land. They were a merry people!
The frontier had stablized considerably since the first incursion of the Marcomanni and Quadi. Apparently the Langobards who settled in Pannonia Superior were more than happy to side with Roma against the other barbarian tribes. Further, the new Castra Regina[59] was nearly completed by Legio III (Tertia) Italia.
Presently, he was taking the road further west and inland through the wet mountains to reach the central Italian plains instead of the eastward route. The road then to Aquincum had required him to head north and east from the capital on the Via Flaminia[60]. Thence it became the great sea road, known further north beyond Ad Portum[61] as the Via Popillia[62]. That had run into the Via Annia[63] north to the cities of Iulia Concordia[64] and Aquileia[65], and then east through the Alpes Iuliae[66]. If he took the road branching north from Emona[67] he would return to the legionary base and municipium of Aquincum. Instead, heading south and east, he would pass through Siscia and then Mursa, finally arriving at Cornacum.
Mountains and valleys. Valleys and mountains. It would be up and down the hills for days and weeks.
Roma to Colonia Veneria was over 300 miles. From the Colonia Veneria to Brixia would be another thirty five or so miles. So the first part of his trip would take him at least two weeks at a brisk 20 miles a day march. Feeling his feet, he thought aloud, "Probably three. Maybe four."
He was not used to such walking, and he knew that he'd have to rest rather frequently. So the whole month of April, the month of Venus, would be filled with celebrations to her for other people, but it would be filled with wet shoes and aching bones for Galainus.
"Both the poet and the month are yours!" he quoted Publius Ovidius Naso—the poet Ovid. Then he thought about the present day of the month. The fourth of April. So he quoted the lines of the poet's great Fasti for the month. Today was the Megalesian Feast of the Cybele. So he recited to himself as he marched:
Sure, he thought to himself, all the fair beauties of the empire would love to marry an unshaven, unkempt, dripping-wet smelly Celtic freedman warrior passing through on his way to the furthest nether regions of Britannia, right? Sure! He'd pull out some smooth Latin line, like "Credo fatum nos coegisse." ("I think fate brought us together!")
It hadn't worked so far, but he was ever hopeful that Fata and Fortuna would be kind to him at last.
He whistled and heard the only cymbals on the wind: the clanking of his gear on his shoulders, his back, and his hips. The sounds were dulled by the gentle patter of rain. No one else was marching on the road. Though the rain was now letting up. The sky was still grey and heavy, but the sun was piercing through a bit.
His mind filled with thoughts and hopes, Galainus Apollo Conall marched into his future.
Timeline
122 AD (875 AUC) - Emperor Hadrian visits Britannia and orders a Wall built between Segedunum (Wallsend), east of Pons Aelius (Newcastle) and Maia (Bowness), west of Luguvalium (Carlisle).
137 AD (890 AUC) - Galainus Apollo Conall born in Petuaria, Britannia, a town of the Parisi tribe along the banks of the Abus Flumen (River Humber)
138 AD (891 AUC) - Death of Emperor Hadrian; succession of Emperor Titus Aelius Adrianus Antoninus Pius Augustus Caesar (Antoninus Pius)
139 AD (892 AUC) - Hadrian deified over Senate objections
140 AD (893 AUC) - Death of the empress Faustina, in whose honour endowments are created for the nurture of poor girls (Faustinianae).
143 AD (896 AUC) - Defeat of Caledonians by Lollius Urbicus; construction begins on Antonine Wall between the Bodotria Aesturia (Forth) and the Clota Flumen (Clyde)
145 AD (898 AUC) - M. Aurelius married to the younger Faustina
147 AD (890 AUC) - M. Aurelius promoted to imperium proconsulare, tribunicia potestas, and ius quintae relationis.
150 AD (903 AUC) - Justin's first defence of the Christians, addressed to Emperor Antoninus, M. Aurelius, and Lucius "the philosopher."
154 AD (907 AUC) - War with Parthia breaks out.
155 AD (908 AUC) - War with Parthia concludes. Brigantes ravage north Britainnia for years. Galainus, age 18, made a slave; brought to Roma.
158 AD (911 AUC) - Iulius Verus finally defeats Brigantes. Hadrian's Wall re-occupied and fortified; Antonine Wall mostly abandoned. Legio VI Victrix dedicates temple to Mars Ultor (Mars the Avenger) at Corstopitum (Corbridge).
160 AD (913 AUC) - Justin's second Apology for Christians sent to the Senate.
161 AD (914 AUC) - Death of Emperor Antoninus Pius; succession of Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus (Marcus Aurelius) and Lucius Aurelius Verus (Lucius Aurelius) as joint emperors. The Institutiones of Gaius published. British war threatens.
162 AD (915 AUC) - Galainus brought to Roma as a slave. Literate and numerate, serves as scribe.
163 AD (916 AUC) - L. Verus expels Parthians from Armenia.
165 AD (918 AUC) - Peace between Rome and Parthia. Widespread pestilence.
166 AD (919 AUC) - Sextus Caecilius Crescens Volusianus replaced as ab epistulis by T. Varus Clemens
167 AD (920 AUC) - Rising of Marcomanni who besiege Aquileia; barbarian invasions of Dacia, Pannonia, Noricum and Raetia. M. Aurelius and L. Verus on the Danube. Famine and pestilence prevalent. Galainus travels to Britannia and Gaul as a slave and scribe; sees home for the first time since departing, but cannot stay.
168 AD (921 AUC) - Temporary peace with the barbarians.
169 AD (922 AUC) - Death and deificiation of Lucius Aurelius Verus; Marcus Aurelius sole Emperor. New barbarian invasions threaten Aquileia. M. Aurelius goes to the Danube. The Noctes Atticae of Aulus Gellius published.
170 AD (924 AUC) - The Langobardi appear on the Rhine and the Mauri invade Spain. Galainus travels to Aquincum, Pannonia Inferior as a slave and scribe.
171 AD (925 AUC) - Galainus made freedman by Centurio Marcus Antonius Lucius; marches briefly with Legio X Fretensis then achieves assignment as scribe to the Princeps Peregrinorum ("Chief of the Foreigners") at the Castra Peregrina (Foreigner's Camp) on Mons Caelis in Roma. Also performs work for the ab epistulis latinus (Latin-language Imperial Correspondent), in the scrinia (Archives), processing Imperial posts from Legio X Fretensis. British war threatens.
172 AD (925 AUC) - Victories over the Marcomanni and Iazyges. British war threatens.
173 AD (926 AUC) - Spain harassed by the Mauri. British war threatens.
174 AD (927 AUC) - Victory over the Quadi. (Christians create related legend of the "Thundering Legion"). M. Aurelius writes The Meditations about this time.
175 AD (928 AUC) - Peace with barbarians. Revolt and death of Auidius Cassius in Syria. Death and deification of Faustina. 5,500 Sarmatian cavalry sent to Britain.
176 AD (929 AUC) - The emperor endows philosophy chairs at Antioch, Alexandria and Athens.
177 AD (930 AUC) - Rising of the Marcomanni and other barbarian tribes.
179 AD (932 AUC) - Galainus leaves service in the scrinia and takes up role of exploratore for Legio X Fretensis; departs Roma 4 April. Castra Regia built by Legio III (Tertia) Italia.
Footnotes
[1] Eburacum: York, UK
[2] Eire and Hibernia: Both ancient names for modern Ireland.
[3] Via Cassia: Cassia was a form of spice, also known as Chinese or Indonesian cinnamon. So this was an ancient "spice road."
[4] Danuvia Flumen: The Danube River
[5] Rhenum Flumen: The Rhine River
[6] Praetorium Agrippinae: Valkenburg, Netherlands
[7] Colonia Veneria: Colony of the Goddess Venus; modern-day Cremona
[8] Brixia: Brescia in Italy
[9] Pons Mulvius: Milvian Bridge; also known as the Ponte Milvio
[10] Tiberis Flumen: The Tiber River which flowed through Rome.
[11] Veii: Etrurian city 16 km NNW of modern Rome
[12] Baccanae: A town along the Via Cassia; north of it the Via Amerina split and ran north, while the Via Cassia turned northwestwardly towards Sutrium; see below.
[13] Sutrium: Modern Sutri, in Viterbo province, Italy.
[14] Via Traiana Nova: the New Trajan Way
[15] Volsinii Novi: New Volsinii; modern Bolsena in Viterbo province, Italy. There is debate whether this is the same as the ancient Etruscan Velzna, or Volsinii vetus (Old Volsinii), which scholars associate with modern Orvieto. See Urbi Vetus below.
[16] Volsiniensis Lacus: Lake Bolsena, or Lago de Bolsena
[17] Urbi Vetus: also Urbs vetus, literally "Old City." This is the site of modern Orvieto, Umbria province. More likely the site of old Etruscan city of Velzna according to scholarly research. Also called Volsinii Vetus (Old Volsinii) to differentiate it from Volsinii Novi (New Volsinii). See Volsinii Novi above.
[18] Clanis Flumen: Modern River Chiana that flows through Tuscany (Etruria) and joins the Tiber not far southeast of Velzna.
[19] Clusium: Modern Chiusi.
[20] Arnus Fluvium: The modern Arno River which flows past Arezzo and through Florence.
[11] Arretium: Modern Arezzo in Italy. A Roman military station on the Via Cassia. An old Etruscan city of the Dodecapolis.
[22] Florentia: Modern Florence (Firenze) in Tuscany, Italy
[23] Bononia: Modern Bologna in Emelia-Romagna, Italy.
[24] Via Aemelia: Also Via Emelia. Literally translated as the Imitating Way or the Rivaling Way. Named after Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, the consul who had ordered the road built c. 2d Century BCE.
[25] Placentia: Modern Piacenza, in Emelia-Romagna, Italy. As Wikipedia states: Although sacked and devastated several times, the city always recovered and as late as the 6th century Procopius called it Urbs Aemilia Princeps, namely the "Princess of the cities across the Via Aemilia", meaning "first city across the Via Aemilia".
[26] Padus Flumen: The Po River, which flows through northern Italy.
[27] Via Postumia: A road named in honor of the consul Spurius Postumius Albinus who had it constructed in 148 BC. It ran from the coast at Genua (Genoa) to Dertona (Tortona), Placentia (Piacenza), Colonia Veneria (Cremona), to Verona, Vicetia (Vicenza), the Augustan Colonia Iulia Concordia (Veneto, Italy),
[28] Venetia: Also known as the X
[29] Emona: Colonia Emona (Aemona) Iulia tribu Claudia, founded 15 AD; now present day Ljubljana, Slovenia
[30] Pannonia Superior: "Upper" Pannonia. A Roman province today corresponding to lands stretching from the Sava valley from the cities of Krsko, Slovenia and Sisak, Croatia north to the River Danube from Vienna, Austria east to Esztergom, Hungary. Carnuntum (Petronell, Austria) was the provincial capital
[31] Pannonia Inferior: "Lower" Pannonia. A Roman province separated from Pannonia Superior c. 103 AD. Its chief cities included the regional capital, Aquincum (Budapest, Hungary), and the legionary camps at Mursa (Osijek, Croatia), Mursella (Petrijevci, Croatia) and Sirmium (Mitrovica, Serbia). Roughly triangular, its northern point was at the Danube bend just north of Aquincum, and its base was the valley of the Savus Flumen (River Sava) running west-to-east.
[32] Siscia: Modern Sisak, Croatia. It sits at the confluence of the Savus Flumen (River Sava), the Colapis (River Kupa combined with the confluence of the River Odra).
[33] Mursa: Colonia Aelia Mursa, a specially-privileged town elevated during Hadrian's reign, 133 AD. Seat of the governor of Lower Pannonia and seat of the Prefect of the Danube Navy. It sits on the Dravus Flumen (River Drava) not far from the Danube. Corresponds to modern Osijek, Croatia.
[34] Cornacum: Modern Sotin, Croatia. An important stronghold on the Danuvius Flumen (Danube River) not far southeast along the river from Vukovar.
[35] Opitergium: A town on the Via Postumia; modern Oderzo. It was reached by the Quadi and Marcomanni, but shortly after their attacks normal daily life resumed. One of its leading citizens, L. Ragonius Urinatius Larcius Quintianus will become vice consul during the reign of Commodus.
[36] Iulia Concordia: A Colonia in Venetia, Italy; not to be confused with other cities of the same name elsewhere in the empire. It was named after the peace achieved by Octavian following the death of Julius Caesar.
[37] Raetia: Roman province along the Danivius (Danube). Its northern border ran from Castra Batava (Passau, Germany) in the east past Castra Regina (Regensburg, Germany) to the Danube-Rhein gap near Tasgaetium (Stein-am-Rhein, Germany). The eastern border ran along the Aenus Flumen (River Inn). The western border ran roughly along the line of the Brigantinus Lacus (Bodensee) to near the St. Gotthard Pass. The southern border ran roughly through the main Alpine passes: Splügen, Julier, Reschen and Brenner. Augusta Vindelicorum (Augsburg) was the capital.
[38] Germania Superior: Roman province which ran through the northern area of modern Switzerland to Germany. Major towns included Noviodunum (Nyons, Switzerland, on Lake Geneva) furthest in the south, Vindonissa (Wingdisch, Switzerland), Argentorate (Strasbourg, France), Dibio (Dijon, France) furthest to the west, Noviomagus (Nijon, France) and other Noviomagus (Speyer, Germany) along the Rhine, Moguntiaticum (Mainz, Germany), Confluentes (Koblenz, Germany), and furthest downstream to the north, Antunnicum (Andernach, Germany).
[39] Timacum Minus: A city in Moesia Superior along the Timachus Flumen identified today as Ravna, Kuline or Gradiste.
[40] Aureliana: Modern Kostol, Serbia. This was the heart of the Metalli Aureliani, the gold-producing region of Moesia Superior.
[41] Nissus: Modern Nis, Serbia.
[42] Moesia: A pair of Roman provinces. It was divided into Moesia Superior, which corresponds roughly today to Serbia, running from Singidunum (Belgrade, Serbia) to Ratiaria (Archar, Bulgaria) along the northern Danube frontier, and as far south as Scupi (Skopje, Macedonia). Further east along the Danube ran Moesia Inferior, which extended to the mouth of the Danube at the Pontus Euxinus (Black Sea). Its major southern cities included Melta (Lovech, Bulgaria) and Odessus (Varna, Bulgaria).
[43] Dalmatia: The coastal province of the Balkans roughly equivalent to the modern coastal of Croatia (Hrvatska), Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and northern Albania (Shqiperia).
[44] Illyria: A kingdom traditionally associated with Albania on the Adriatic coast. According to Wikipedia: The main cities of the Illyrian kingdom were Lissus and Epidamnus (also known as Dyrrhacion, Dyrrhachium). In 10 AD, after its conquest by Rome, Illyria was divided into Dalmatia (the coastal province, roughly corresponding to modern Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and the southern coast of Croatia) and Pannonia (the Danube province, corresponding to northern Croatia and Hungary west and south of the Danube, as far west as Vienna, Austria, and running southwest to Ptuj and Krsko, Slovenia). Pannonia was later divided into two provinces: Pannonia Superior and Pannonia Inferior. After the time of Marcus Aurelius, Pannonia would be further divided into four parts.
[45] Tarsus: A city in modern south Turkey near the Mediterranean coast. It was renown for being a major center of the western Mithraic cult, and was also the home of Saul of Tarsus, who becomes famous as St. Paul in the 1st Century AD.
[46] Hadriaticum Mare: Adriatic Sea
[47] Sicilia: The island of Sicily, Italy
[48] The southern tip of Italia where the Bruttii tribe lived: Calabria, Italy
[49] Siculum Fretum: The Straits of Messina; these are the straights that are referred to by the surname "Fretensis"—"of the straights"
[50] Scylla: A point on Calabria at the northern end of the Siculum Fretum (Straits of Messina). It was personified as a beautiful but transformed nymph into a treacherous sea monster. Ulysses (Greek Odysseus) encountered the beastly creature and six of his men were devoured alive.
[51] Charybdis: A whirlpool off the coast of Sicilia (Sicily) in the Siculum Fretum (Straights of Messina). It was supposed to be a treacherous place to cross, and was encountered by the hero in Homer's Odyssey.
[52] Mylae: Modern Milazzo, on the island of Sicily, Italy. It was the scene of two famous naval battles. The first was in 260 BC, when the Romans defeated the Carthaginian fleet. The second battle was in 36 BC, when Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, admiral of Octavian, defeated Sextus Pompeius.
[53] Naulochus: The second great battle of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa was fought off the Naulochus cape of Sicily, Italy.
[54] Actium: The greatest battle of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, defeating the combined fleets of Marc Antony and Cleopatra VII of Egypt. It was fought off the coast of Nicopolis, Greece.
[55] Syria: The ancient land of Aram, and roughly similar to the present-day state of the same name. However, the area across the Euphrates was known as separate provinces, Mesopotamia, and later, Osrhoene. And the southern reaches of Syria extended all the way to the Tiberius Mare (the Sea of Galilee). Thus it would also include ancient Phoenicia—modern Lebanon.
[56] Judaea: The Roman province of Judaea, modern Israel, was contained on its eastern border by the Iordanes Flumen (River Jordan). It did not extend much past the tip of the Dead Sea; the border cut straight west to the Mediterranean south of Masada. South and east of Judaea would be the province of Arabia.
[57] Parthia: This was the great empire facing Rome's eastern border at the time. Its capital was Ctesiphon (20 miles from modern Baghdad, Iraq).
[58] Aquincum: Modern Budapest, or more properly, Obuda, on the western bank of the Danube.
[59] Castra Regina: Modern Regensburg, Austria.
[60] Via Flaminia: A great northern road from Rome, later known in the Middle Ages as the "Ravenna Road."
[61] Ad Portum: A town at the juncture of the Via Annia and Via Popillia near the mouth of the Meduacus Maior Flumen (River Brenta). To the west lay the crossroads of Meduacus Maior, and beyond that Patavium (Padua, Italy). To the south was Meduacus Minor.
[62] Via Popilia: The coastal road through the northern Italian area of Aemilia along the northern Hadriaticum Mare (Adriatic Sea). It passed through the salt marsh area known as the Septem Maria (Seven Seas)—named after the many lakes along the mouths of the Padus (Po) and Athesis (Adige) rivers. The road began where the Via Flaminia left off at Ariminum and ran up the coast to where it plowed into the Via Annia (q.v.) at Ad Portus (q.v.).
[63] Via Annia: The great and ancient road built by the Praetor Titus Annius Rufus (731 BC) which connected Atria (Adria, Italy), Patavium (Padua), Iulia Concordia (ancient, now in ruins), and Aquileia.
[64] Iulia Concordia: One of many cities by this name. This was a colonia founded in Veneto by Octavian to honor Julius Caesar and celebrate the concord of the Triumvirate. It sat at the juncture of the Via Postumia and the Via Annia.
[65] Aquileia: A city on the Adriatic coast along the Via Annia (q.v.)
[66] Alpes Iuliae: The Julian Alps dividing Italy from the Balkans.
[67] Emona: Modern Ljublajana, Slovenia.
References
[Author's note: in transcribing this to the Web, the URLs for the following references were lost. Furthermore, there are more print publication references to be made. While some corrections have been attempted already, additional currecitons, additions and updates are forthcoming.]
Aquileia, Italy (Official Town Site)
http://www.aquileia.it/
Beard, Henry (1990). Latin for All Occasions. Villard Books
ISBN 0-394-58660-3
Centre of Behavioural & Forensic Toxicology. Padova: A Historical Outline and the Growth of the City. Padua Hospital-Univerity of Padova, Italy.
http://www.cbft.unipd.it/pdtour/history.html
Columbia Encyclopedia. Mylae
http://columbia.thefreedictionary.com/Mylae
Columbia Encyclopedia, Sextus Pompeius
http://columbia.thefreedictionary.com/Sextus+Pompeius
Etruscan Dictionary CI-CV
http://etruscans1.tripod.com/Language/EtruscanCI.html
Knjazevac, Timacum Minus (History)
http://www.knjazevac.co.yu/English/Istorija/Timacum.html
Map24, for distances calculated between cities in Slovenia, Croatia, and elsewhere in Europe
http://www.de.map24.com/
McCrary, Kurt (2004-2006). History of Sotting - Sotin (Cornacum)
http://www.dvhh.org/sotting/history/history-1.htm
MultiMap, for distances calculated between cities in Italy.
http://www.multimap.com
Multimedia Plan. Carnuntum, Virtual Tour
http://www.multimediaplan.at/carnuntum/Englisch/englisch.html
The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites, Opitergium, Veneto, Italy
http://icarus.umkc.edu/sandbox/perseus/pecs/page.3326.a.php
PRAGRIS
http://www.pragris.com/
The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites, Iulia Concordia, Veneto, Italy
http://icarus.umkc.edu/sandbox/perseus/pecs/page.2129.a.php
The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites, Aquileia, Udine, Veneto, Italy
http://icarus.umkc.edu/sandbox/perseus/pecs/page.368.a.php
Ritterling, Emil. Legio X Fretensis
http://www.livius.org/le-lh/legio/x_fretensis.html
UNRV History, Pannonia
http://www.unrv.com/provinces/pannonia.php
Mysterious Etruscans. Veii
http://www.mysteriousetruscans.com/veii.html
Mysterious Etruscans. Velzna (Roman Volsinii)
http://www.mysteriousetruscans.com/velzna.html
Ovid. Fasti, Book IV
http://www.tkline.freeserve.co.uk/OvidFastiBkFour.htm#_Toc69367847
sistema Bibliotecario Museale provinciale (sBMp) La Via Annia. Provincia di Venezia, Assessorato alla Cultura
http://sbmp.provincia.venezia.it/mir/english/musei/annia.htm
Springer, Zvonko (1999). Osijek - Essek - Mursa
http://www.cosy.sbg.ac.at/~zzspri/travels/osijek/OSIJEKAlt4.html
Springer, Zvonko (1999). Regional History of Vukovar and Ilok
http://www.hr/darko/etf/vukov.html
WebExhibits, The Early Roman Calendar
http://webexhibits.org/calendars/calendar-roman.html
Wikipedia. Aquileia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquileia
Wikipedia, Ara Pacis
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ara_Pacis
Wikipedia. Arezzo
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arezzo
Wikipedia. Arno River
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arno_river
Wikipedia. Battle of Actium
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Actium
Wikipedia. Battle of Naulochus
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Naulochus
Wikipedia. Bologna (Bononia)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bologna
Wikipedia. Carnuntum
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnuntum
Wikipedia. Cassia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassia
Wikipedia. Charybdis
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charybdis
Wikipedia. Clusium
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clusium
Wikipedia. Cursus Publicus
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cursus_publicus
Wikipedia. Emona
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emona
Wikipedia. Hadrian
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadrian
Wikipedia. Illyria
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illyria
Wikipedia. Julian Alps
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_Alps
Wikipedia. Marcus Aemelius Lepidus (187 BC)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aemilius_Lepidus_%28187_BC%29
Wikipedia. Marcus Aurelius
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius
Wikipedia. Milvian Bridge
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milvian_Bridge
Wikipedia, Orvieto
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orvieto
Wikipedia. Ovid
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovid
Wikipedia. Pannonia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pannonia
Wikipedia. Parthia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthia
Wikipedia. Piacenza (Placentia)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piacenza
Wikipedia. Po River (Padus Flumen)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Po_River
Wikipedia. Scylla
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scylla
Wikipedia. Sisak (Siscia)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siscia
Wikipedia. Seven Seas
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_seas
Wikipedia. Sutri (Sutrium)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutrium
Wikipedia. Veii
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veii
Wikipedia. Via Aemilia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Via_Aemilia
Wikipedia. Via Flaminia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Via_Flaminia
Wikipedia. Via Popilia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Via_Popilia
Wikipedia. Via Postumia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Via_Postumia
Wolfram, Herwig; Thomas Dunlap (translator) (2000) The Germanic Empire and Its Peoples. University of California Press
ISBN 0-520-08511-6
On the Rainy Road
Galainus heaved a sigh, sucked in his gut, and hefted his wicker basket higher upon his back once again. The weather had been rainy. Rain, rain, rain, rain! It was like the tale the Jews told. Forty days and forty nights! He wondered when Marcus Aurelius would order an ark built at the Temple of Neptune.
The first time Galainus entered Roma it was as a slave. His father, a scribe in Eburacum[1], had gone into debt. Too few denarii for too many pots of ink and rolls of parchment. So there was nothing much else to do but to sell the children off to slavery! This was how he had ended up in Roma.
At least, this was the story Galainus told others. Sometimes he ended it differently. Sometimes he changed the middle. For Galainus was Hibernian of lineage and a born storyteller. And if a story was not outrageous enough, he'd embellish it with fanciful flourishes like the great shanachie of Éire, which the Romans called Hibernia[2].
It was under such servile conditions Centurio Marcus Antonius Lucius found Galainus and arranged for his freedom—so long as he was willing to join the Legio! Cohors IV (Quartae) of Legio X (Deci) Fretensis. After some years learning Latin in Rome, Galainus was good enough to pick out the words for "Fourth Cohort" and "Tenth Legion," but he was curiously delighted to find out the surname "Fretensis" meant "of the Sea Straights." He always had an affinity for the sea.
Galainus never considered the military as a lad, and yet here he was: over the age of forty and now (or again) a member of the Roman army as an exploratore!
His new role was to scout ahead of Marcus' Cohors and guide troops through the terrain of Britainnia. Though Legio X was normally stationed in Judaea, for reasons known only to the commanders of the Legions and the Emperor himself a detachment was being sent to Britannia. Marcus asked if Galainus was ready to be a native scout under his command.
This would be easy, wouldn't it? After all, was not Galainus Apollo Conall a renown expert in the geography, peoples and customs of the northern extents of Britannia?
When people pointed out that he hadn't been to Britannia since his childhood, and even then he had not traveled far outside the lands of the Parisi and Coritani tribes, he'd gregariously assure and concerns and recite a few tales to show he remembered a goodly bit of his homeland. Though he made it sound like he walked these places, what was more true was that Galainus could recite tales of steps made by his father and grandfather, claiming such deeds as his own. He knew it was better to properly crediting his forebears, yet he spoke such tales so convincingly that at times even he believed he had been there at some time in his life!
Besides, since most people in Rome had never been to Britannia themselves, how could they dispute his words?
Galainus had a few times met true shanachie telling tales for coins in Eburacum when he was a child, and even saw one in Roma when he was an adult. They played their strange tall harps, and told the greatest stories about the heroes of ages. All from memory! No reading from scrolls like the Romans did. They were like the Greek actors. Even better! It was grand. Mnemosyne be praised!
In his mind he fancied himself a great poet. He'd boast of his own oratory powers. "Ovid? You like his poetry? Wait until you hear mine!"
Only, he often forgot his lines and needed to read from his scrolls. He was the butt of several jokes, yet didn't mind much at all. At least he could make people laugh!
As he walked in the soaking rain, he was painfully aware of other truths besides his aching feet and back. Not resting for a moment as his feet repeatedly trod the paving stones of the Via Cassia[3], he cracked his back and was glad he had escaped the cracking of scourges and whips. He was always a good slave, so had never been harshly beaten. But he had been threatened enough by such prospects to wish not to return to such straights.
He had indeed been freed by Centurio Marcus to serve in the Legio, but he swiftly changed his mind about being a soldier and practically abandoned his oaths of service to the field command, instead serving as a scribe at the military headquarters in Roma. ("Only temporarily!" he had assured the Centurio.)
That was seven years ago now. Almost eight. He had signed up for the Legio in good faith, but after his first march with Marcus, wincing at his torn-up feet, having had to pick out tough-as-hobnails prickly seed pods from of his soles, Galainus nearly fled the life of the field army. He arranged to have a position assigned in the capital performing logistical and scribal tasks for the Legions, avoiding service in the provinces scrupulously.
Recent circumstances, which he was purposefully vague about, suddenly required Galainus to face his obligations to the Centurio. So he had come to Marcus and asked for a field position. Yes, anywhere but Roma sounded good right about now!
Thus the Centurio chose for him the role of exploratore for his Cohors. A scout.
"I need someone who knows northern Britannia."
Of course! Who would know the north of Britannia better than Galianus Apollo Conall? Was he not born in Eburacum?
"I thought you said you were from Petuaria?"
Well, wasn't that close enough?
Apparently it was, because no sooner had Galainus offered his services than he found himself laden with wicker pack, helmet, spear, and all the other accouterments of a freedman exploratore.
What? No horse?
No. Apparently not.
The vehiculatio, the Imperial posting system such as used by the Imperial courier service, the cursus publicus, could make 200 milia passuum per day in an emergency by changing horses at regular intervals. Yet this was reserved for high-born men and army personnel far higher up on the Roman hierarchy. Galainus would have to walk.
And thus, his first duty as an exploratore was an excursion on foot between Roma and a few military colonies. From there to the Danuvia Flumen[4], and then on to the Rhenus Flumen[5] frontiers. At the mouth of the Rhenus, at Praetorium Agrippinae[6], he was to board a ship to take him to Britannia. He was practically home at last!
* * *
Resting for Prandium
Before we get ahead of ourselves, thought Galianus, let's consider what we have now before us: a long trip from Roma to Colonia Veneria[7] and Brixia[8], where the Tenth's ex-legionnaires retired. As an exploratore, it was his first task to find these cities in Italia.
On his march out of Roma, he had stopped to pay homage to Venus at her temple and pray for safe passage at the Ara Pacis, Augustus' Altar of Peace. The latter ironically stood on the Campus Martius—the Plain of Mars, god of War. Galainus prayed fervently that he would find love and peace on the road. While he was a warrior, the last thing he wanted to suffer from was being waylaid alone on the road. And the thing he most hoped to find on the road was a wife!
Since leaving behind the city, he had long ago crossed the Pons Mulvius[9] over the turbulently-flowing Tiberis Flumen[10] and passed by a few towns. The rains had swelled the river and it was even flowing outside of its banks in places, he had heard. He then passed by the ancient Etruscan city of Veii[11] nestled and hidden in a nearby valley to the east. He rested for a bit and leaned on his spear. The drizzle was steady but it was not the torrent he had experienced in the morning. After a while he kept moving again.
In a second rest, he sat and ate his prandium—a luncheon of some bread, meat, cheese, olives and fruit he had bought in Roma before departing. He had plenty of food upon him for the march. It was early in the afternoon, and there were still many hours before the sun set. He gazed at the overcast sky and was glad the air was almost dry now. But the ground was not. As he sat on his damp cloak under a tree, his back facing to the west, he enjoyed the taste of wine and grunted at the stray bits of dry crumbling cheese that escaped his grasp and tumbled onto the mud.
He marched north along the the Via Cassia. He had his sights upon Baccanae[12] by dusk. If he could achieve that city, the next day would be an easier march to Sutrium[13]. Ahead along the Via Cassia in a few days stretched the Via Traiana Nova[14]. It diverged from the Via Cassia north out of Volsinii Novi[15] beside the Volsiniensis Lacus[16]. This helpfully straightened the route of the old Via Cassia for a bit, bypassing the older Etruscan Urbi Vetus[17]. It then joined back into the Via Cassia near the crossing of the often-stagnant and slow-flowing Clanis Flumen[18]. Galainus was a bit concerned because with the rains the river might actually be far from stagnant.
Perhaps, he hoped, the weather would dry up in the next few days.
All this was his passage through the old Etruria valley. Land of the Etruscans.
He remembered other names further in his trip only barely. Once north of Clusium[19] up the Clanis valley, he would eventually cross the watershed into the valley of the Arnus Fluvium[20]. There, he would find Arretium[21], and follow the river to Florentia[22]. Thereafter Galainus' mind fogged. There was supposed to be a road north from there through the Appenines. Finally he would get out of the mountains near Bononia[23].
"Find Bononia," Marcus had instructed him. "You can't miss it. From there, take the Via Aemilia[24] west."
Right. Find the Via Aemilia. "The Imitating Way." Perhaps it could also mean "The Rivaling Way." Heading west, he would eventually come to Placentia[25] along the Padus Flumen[26]. The Via Postumia[27] would then cut back north and east and enter Venetia[28] and come at last to Colonia Veneria—the Colony of Venus. It sounded delightful!
In their last counsel before Galainus left, Marcus and he agreed it was better to take the main road than to wonder about the conditions on the less-travelled route through Brixellum and a ferry across the rain-flooded Padus.
If all this sounded complicated, fortunately he had all this written down. He prayed to the heavens his scrolls were not getting soaked and ruined under the skin used to cover his wicker pack. Otherwise this would be a long trip indeed!
Upon visiting both Colonia Veneria and Brixia (which was mercifully not far to the north), he was to drop off some scrolls and pick up others to bring to his Centurio. Marcus would be taking another road. They would meet up again in Eburacum in Britannia before heading to the Wall.
Then was to come his next great task. From Brixia the road east to Colonia Emona[29] would be another 250 miles—another two weeks or so. He was supposed to travel inland across Pannonia Superior[30] and Pannonia Inferior[31], through the towns of Siscia[32] and Mursa[33] to finally arrive at Cornacum[34] along the Danuvius, in the land of the Cornacates. This was one of the Pannonian Limes, the frontier fortifications of the Empire.
There he was to fetch more scrolls from members of the Pannonian Frontier defenses for the Centurio. The greatest challenge was that Marcomanni, Quadi and other barbarian tribes had crossed the Danuvius Flumen early in the reign of Marcus Aurelius, back when Lucius Aurelius Verus was still alive. These barbarian hordes were still spread out across Pannonia as far south as Opitergium[35] near Iulia Concordia[36]. This would make traveling across the north of Italia on the Via Postumia frought with peril.
When Galainus wondered why the Centurio did not send the cursus publicus to fetch his scrolls. Marcus explained all of this was part of his testing and training. He was to show that he could explore and march across the empire afoot and alone, surviving in potentially hostile-controlled territory. He was to not antagonize the Quadi or Marcomanni, but simply observe. The fact that he would be dressed as a Celt, and not a Roman, could be seen as a disguise. When Galainus asked whether they might kill him as a spy, the Centurio looked him in the eye and smiled:
"Firmitas et Honorare!"
Why was Marcus always in such a chipper mood about marching into enemy-held lands? Where did he get such valor? It made no sense to Galainus. But he was now committed to the path. He replied with a bit of irony, trying to muster some positive feelings for the adventure:
"Gratias, Centurio! Die dulci fruere!" — Thanks, Centurio! Have a nice day!
Why, asked Galainus, was he to head east to the far stretches of Pannonia Inferior as opposed to heading straight north over the passes to Raetia[37] or directly to Germania Superior[38]? Other than picking up scrolls and dodging barbarians in search of plunder, of course.
The answer was given by the Centurio soberly and in earnestness. Supposedly there was a shrine to deceased Illyrian Cornacates who had asked the Romans for help in Pannonia during the Illyrian revolt centuries ago. Help had not reached them in time, and they died defending the Roman Empire. Tiberius and Germanicus subdued the province, yet all that could be done then was to bury the dead.
Centurio Marcus thought it well for Galainus to find this shrine to the Fallen Cornacates, now well over a century of years old, and pay respects to the people who were not Romans, but who believed in the virtues of Roma, and who had died in the defense of the Senate and the People of Roma.
"Since you too are not directly Roman by blood, but you are allied in your heart, you should see the place where these people died, and understand what they fought for. You should see for yourself how barbaric treachery can destroy people who may love a nation and a people not their own."
Thus he was to see if he could find the place where the fallen Illyrian Cornacates lay.
"If you can find this place, which remains but a mention in the history of our Legio, then you can find any spot in the Empire!"
The only thing more obscure to find was a lost gold coin lost from the Legio spoken of in the apocryphal tale. It was apparently lost near Timacum Minus[39] on the road from the goldsmiths and mints in Aureliana[40] to the provincial town of Nissus[41] in Moesia[42] earlier during the reign of Marcus Aurelius. "Now, if you can find that, you'd have to have the eyes of Aquila and Fortuna's blessing!"
Yes, of course. Aquila's blessing. For a moment as he marched, Galainus dropped his eyes to the paving stones and checked the cracks to see if there were any lost coins. There was no sun to glint off metal, so all he saw was mud and puddles and a few spring flowers making their early debut. A few yellow and violet blossoms here and there drinking up the cold rain. He wish he knew what they were called.
There was another important reason for the trip. With the overrunning raids of the Quadi and the Marcomanni, the Centurio wanted him to scout the area and bring him a report of what the frontier was like. How the current people of the land were defending against the invaders. How their spirits fared, and how strong or desperate their situation stood at this time. He was also to watch the legions, the alae, and the other auxilia to see how they organized themselves.
It made sense. The actual "Roman" Romans were the minority now. The Romans, like Centurio Marcus, needed to understand the alliances of the peoples that were all working for the good of the Empire, even if few of them bore the typical Italic features of centuries past. They were political Romans, not blood Romans.
One day, if Galainus could fulfill his duties as a Roman in the military, he too would be granted citizenship. He hoped that if he ever had children, they too would be free citizens of the Empire. For now he was a freedman, whose bond was pledged to the Legio and the Emperor.
Roma was truly cosmopolitan, to borrow the Greek word. People from Europa, Africa, and Asia all intermingled, intermarried, and interlocuted naturally and easily. Greek philosophers, Aegyptian scribes and Hebraic scholars sat side-by-side with him at the sumptuous dinners of the capital city of the world.
For now, Roma and all its pleasant populous was behind him. Before him rose the wet, cold, cloudy road north through the hills of Italia. And beyond that, the wild lands of Pannonia.
* * *
The Illyrian Gods
While he was in Roma, Galainus had been able to speak with a Greek historian. Once Galainus paid a few coins to honor Clio, Muse of History, the old Greek teacher told him what he knew about the gods of Dalmatia[43] and Pannonia. The Greek historian assured him they worshipped the same gods as in ancient Illyria[44]. If not, this was still the closest that Galainus discovered given the time he had before he left for the march. He was sure the tale was be worth hearing nonetheless.
The chief gods of the Illyrians were Ou, the god of Heaven, and Genusus, the goddess of the Earth.
Their first twin children included Mikon, god of Friendship and his twin brother Zeau, who ruled Intelligence. They were both born as snakes. Galainus thought it odd that the Illyrians chose a snake for friendship, because so many cultures saw the serpent as treacherous. Almost to confirm his worst fears, the Illyrian and Pannonian people had a reputation for being backward, uncultivated, bloodthirsty and treacherous.
In other words, a typical Roman border province! Were they so different than the Britons or the German tribes? Not really. All were treacherous, superstitious and one more thing. He once learned another Greek word: xenophobic. Afraid of outsiders. Actually, probably more hateful than fearful. Yet a Mithraic cultist from Tarsus[45] once told him that hate stems from fear, deep down. That made sense to Galainus.
Reflecting on this, he realized he did not hate the pavement stones nor the cold wet puddles. He knew they meant him no ill-will. So he splashed and tromped a bit playfully again as he marched. His helmet clattered, and his spear and shield clanged as he carried them.
He could tell his back would be a bundle of bones and aching muscles when he rested tonight. But he had no need to hate nor fear the road he walked. After all, so many others traveled it before him. He was safe in the confines of the Roman empire. He was dressed as a warrior, of the exploratores.
He was more than safe. He was projecting and producing safety upon the road. And who knows how many would travel it after him? All in the footsteps of his protective presence.
Speaking about water and warfare, the rest of the Illyrian pantheon also included the gods Radon of the Oceans, and Korrotos of War. Then there were the goddesses Broket of Food and Fortune, Shkumbe of Love and Beauty, and the last was the recursively named daughter of Genusus: Genusus.
Keeping in mythological and Celtic custom, both the sons Mikon and Zeau co-married their sister Genusus. As Julius Caesar himself observed, it was not uncommon amongst the Celts to have a common wife which bore children for many men. Sometimes brothers would share a wife, or an extended family would all share her. She would have children with fathers and their sons. They would all protect her and treat the children as the issue of the first man to introduce her to the clan. The Romans found this repugnant.
However, didn't the Romans have their gods marry their own sisters? Galainus found this just as puzzling. Wasn't the point of marriage to bring in new blood to the tribe? New spirits from other peoples? Typical Roman hypocrisy! Ah well. He was a soldier, not a priest.
Unlike Mars, the god of War which the Romans idolized and readily welcomed, the Illyrian Korrotos was banished from his land. He later married his sister Broket, and was allowed back to the land. Apparently womanly food and good fortune could tame war and make him a happy husband, which Galainus thought was rather obvious once he thought about it.
Likewise Rodon of the seas was banished. He lived in the Caves of Rodon by the Dalmatian coast. He took Shkumbe for his bride. Galianus heard many say the Hadriaticum Mare[46] could indeed make anyone wish to leave their lands and live in a cave nearby just to hear the sea because it was so beautiful. So he supposed this was true also.
The Roman Emperor Publius Aelius Traianus Hadrianus also loved the Illyrian provinces, especially Pannonia Inferior. It was one of his favorite places to visit. Hadrian ruled there as the first provincial governor of the newly-defined Pannonia Inferior before his ascension to the imperial throne. Before he had the Wall built.
Since this expedition to Britannia was inextricably connected to the Imperator Hadrian, it seemed appropriate for Galainus' first field mission to walk the land where the glorious successor to Trajan worked and vacationed.
The Limes of the Danuvius Frontier would be curious to compare to the Wall in any regard.
* * *
Legio Deci Fretensis
The Eyes of the great eagle Aquila? Galainus felt he was lucky to have eyes at all! He kept secret his eyesight was not as sharp as it had been in his younger days. For a scout, he did quite a bit of squinting at the distance. Even if the distance was less than a bowshot.
In the drizzling rain, he had to wipe his face now and then and often squinted as much to keep the wind-swept water out of his eyes as much as to adjust his vision over the distance. Being a scribe, often working late into the night with inkpot and crouched over scrolls, had taken away his vision at distance.
Perhaps one day he'd be a great blind poet! But for now, he'd need to keep that secret as best he could. It wouldn't do Legio Deci any good to have a half-blind scout!
The Tenth. They had a reputation of being hard-as-nails. Originally drawn up two centuries ago by Octavian (who became enthroned in heaven as Augustus Caesar), they heralded from Sicilia[47] and the southern tip of Italia where the Bruttii tribe lived[48]. "Of the Straights" referred to the treacherous straights of the Siculum Fretum[49], and the harrowing navigation required between Scylla[50] and whirlpool of Charybdis[51]. Their very name conjured tales of brave Ulysses. Also those tales mortal mariners who lived nearby this hazard, constantly watching the treacherous waters and navigating them bravely and safely.
If he served for a full year in the Legio, Galainus would be permitted the blue cloak of a Roman marine. It was a special legionary honor reserved for those who proved their mettle.
At its inception Legio Deci's first actions were in the battles against Sextus Pompeius at Mylae[52] (not to be confused with the great naval battle against Hannibal where the corvus was first employed) and Naulochus[53]. After defending the Sicilian grain for the people of Roma against the usurper, and their victory at Actium[54] over Marc Antony, the Legio traveled across many lands in defense of the Empire.
They were stationed for a while along the Danuvius frontier, then called to Syria[55] and Judaea[56], ably serving in the wars against the Jewish revolt and serving as a bulwark in the defense of the empire against the repeated machinations of Parthia[57]. They were still stationed along the eastern frontiers.
* * *
Route to the Danuvius Frontier
Galainus knew part of the trip already. Or at least, was familiar with the general direction of march. He had been to Aquincum[58] and spent some time in the land of the Azali in Pannonia Inferior some years ago. He was still a slave then, following as a scribe for his wealthy master. He had some free time to wander about a festival and to see gladiatorial combat. He loved the fools and minstrels of the land. They were a merry people!
The frontier had stablized considerably since the first incursion of the Marcomanni and Quadi. Apparently the Langobards who settled in Pannonia Superior were more than happy to side with Roma against the other barbarian tribes. Further, the new Castra Regina[59] was nearly completed by Legio III (Tertia) Italia.
Presently, he was taking the road further west and inland through the wet mountains to reach the central Italian plains instead of the eastward route. The road then to Aquincum had required him to head north and east from the capital on the Via Flaminia[60]. Thence it became the great sea road, known further north beyond Ad Portum[61] as the Via Popillia[62]. That had run into the Via Annia[63] north to the cities of Iulia Concordia[64] and Aquileia[65], and then east through the Alpes Iuliae[66]. If he took the road branching north from Emona[67] he would return to the legionary base and municipium of Aquincum. Instead, heading south and east, he would pass through Siscia and then Mursa, finally arriving at Cornacum.
Mountains and valleys. Valleys and mountains. It would be up and down the hills for days and weeks.
Roma to Colonia Veneria was over 300 miles. From the Colonia Veneria to Brixia would be another thirty five or so miles. So the first part of his trip would take him at least two weeks at a brisk 20 miles a day march. Feeling his feet, he thought aloud, "Probably three. Maybe four."
He was not used to such walking, and he knew that he'd have to rest rather frequently. So the whole month of April, the month of Venus, would be filled with celebrations to her for other people, but it would be filled with wet shoes and aching bones for Galainus.
"Both the poet and the month are yours!" he quoted Publius Ovidius Naso—the poet Ovid. Then he thought about the present day of the month. The fourth of April. So he quoted the lines of the poet's great Fasti for the month. Today was the Megalesian Feast of the Cybele. So he recited to himself as he marched:
Let the sky turn three times on its axis,Eunuchs will march! How ironic. The Cybele priests were all eunuchs, yet here Galainus was still unmarried at 41! It was a public embarrassment now. Yet he was only made a freedman seven years ago. Yet while he had dalliances, he never was able to actually find a wife. Perhaps he'd meet her on this march!
Let the Sun three times yoke and loose his horses,
And the Berecyntian flute will begin sounding
Its curved horn, it will be the Idaean Mother’s feast.
Eunuchs will march, and sound the hollow drums,
And cymbal will clash with cymbal, in ringing tones:
Seated on the soft necks of her servants, she’ll be carried
With howling, through the midst of the City streets.
The stage is set: the games are calling. Watch, then,
Quirites, and let those legal wars in the fora cease.
I’d like to ask many things, but I’m made fearful
By shrill clash of bronze, and curved flute’s dreadful drone.
‘Lend me someone to ask, goddess.’
Cybele spying her learned Granddaughters, the Muses,
ordered them to take care of me.
Sure, he thought to himself, all the fair beauties of the empire would love to marry an unshaven, unkempt, dripping-wet smelly Celtic freedman warrior passing through on his way to the furthest nether regions of Britannia, right? Sure! He'd pull out some smooth Latin line, like "Credo fatum nos coegisse." ("I think fate brought us together!")
It hadn't worked so far, but he was ever hopeful that Fata and Fortuna would be kind to him at last.
He whistled and heard the only cymbals on the wind: the clanking of his gear on his shoulders, his back, and his hips. The sounds were dulled by the gentle patter of rain. No one else was marching on the road. Though the rain was now letting up. The sky was still grey and heavy, but the sun was piercing through a bit.
His mind filled with thoughts and hopes, Galainus Apollo Conall marched into his future.
* * *
Timeline
122 AD (875 AUC) - Emperor Hadrian visits Britannia and orders a Wall built between Segedunum (Wallsend), east of Pons Aelius (Newcastle) and Maia (Bowness), west of Luguvalium (Carlisle).
137 AD (890 AUC) - Galainus Apollo Conall born in Petuaria, Britannia, a town of the Parisi tribe along the banks of the Abus Flumen (River Humber)
138 AD (891 AUC) - Death of Emperor Hadrian; succession of Emperor Titus Aelius Adrianus Antoninus Pius Augustus Caesar (Antoninus Pius)
139 AD (892 AUC) - Hadrian deified over Senate objections
140 AD (893 AUC) - Death of the empress Faustina, in whose honour endowments are created for the nurture of poor girls (Faustinianae).
143 AD (896 AUC) - Defeat of Caledonians by Lollius Urbicus; construction begins on Antonine Wall between the Bodotria Aesturia (Forth) and the Clota Flumen (Clyde)
145 AD (898 AUC) - M. Aurelius married to the younger Faustina
147 AD (890 AUC) - M. Aurelius promoted to imperium proconsulare, tribunicia potestas, and ius quintae relationis.
150 AD (903 AUC) - Justin's first defence of the Christians, addressed to Emperor Antoninus, M. Aurelius, and Lucius "the philosopher."
154 AD (907 AUC) - War with Parthia breaks out.
155 AD (908 AUC) - War with Parthia concludes. Brigantes ravage north Britainnia for years. Galainus, age 18, made a slave; brought to Roma.
158 AD (911 AUC) - Iulius Verus finally defeats Brigantes. Hadrian's Wall re-occupied and fortified; Antonine Wall mostly abandoned. Legio VI Victrix dedicates temple to Mars Ultor (Mars the Avenger) at Corstopitum (Corbridge).
160 AD (913 AUC) - Justin's second Apology for Christians sent to the Senate.
161 AD (914 AUC) - Death of Emperor Antoninus Pius; succession of Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus (Marcus Aurelius) and Lucius Aurelius Verus (Lucius Aurelius) as joint emperors. The Institutiones of Gaius published. British war threatens.
162 AD (915 AUC) - Galainus brought to Roma as a slave. Literate and numerate, serves as scribe.
163 AD (916 AUC) - L. Verus expels Parthians from Armenia.
165 AD (918 AUC) - Peace between Rome and Parthia. Widespread pestilence.
166 AD (919 AUC) - Sextus Caecilius Crescens Volusianus replaced as ab epistulis by T. Varus Clemens
167 AD (920 AUC) - Rising of Marcomanni who besiege Aquileia; barbarian invasions of Dacia, Pannonia, Noricum and Raetia. M. Aurelius and L. Verus on the Danube. Famine and pestilence prevalent. Galainus travels to Britannia and Gaul as a slave and scribe; sees home for the first time since departing, but cannot stay.
168 AD (921 AUC) - Temporary peace with the barbarians.
169 AD (922 AUC) - Death and deificiation of Lucius Aurelius Verus; Marcus Aurelius sole Emperor. New barbarian invasions threaten Aquileia. M. Aurelius goes to the Danube. The Noctes Atticae of Aulus Gellius published.
170 AD (924 AUC) - The Langobardi appear on the Rhine and the Mauri invade Spain. Galainus travels to Aquincum, Pannonia Inferior as a slave and scribe.
171 AD (925 AUC) - Galainus made freedman by Centurio Marcus Antonius Lucius; marches briefly with Legio X Fretensis then achieves assignment as scribe to the Princeps Peregrinorum ("Chief of the Foreigners") at the Castra Peregrina (Foreigner's Camp) on Mons Caelis in Roma. Also performs work for the ab epistulis latinus (Latin-language Imperial Correspondent), in the scrinia (Archives), processing Imperial posts from Legio X Fretensis. British war threatens.
172 AD (925 AUC) - Victories over the Marcomanni and Iazyges. British war threatens.
173 AD (926 AUC) - Spain harassed by the Mauri. British war threatens.
174 AD (927 AUC) - Victory over the Quadi. (Christians create related legend of the "Thundering Legion"). M. Aurelius writes The Meditations about this time.
175 AD (928 AUC) - Peace with barbarians. Revolt and death of Auidius Cassius in Syria. Death and deification of Faustina. 5,500 Sarmatian cavalry sent to Britain.
176 AD (929 AUC) - The emperor endows philosophy chairs at Antioch, Alexandria and Athens.
177 AD (930 AUC) - Rising of the Marcomanni and other barbarian tribes.
179 AD (932 AUC) - Galainus leaves service in the scrinia and takes up role of exploratore for Legio X Fretensis; departs Roma 4 April. Castra Regia built by Legio III (Tertia) Italia.
* * *
Footnotes
[1] Eburacum: York, UK
[2] Eire and Hibernia: Both ancient names for modern Ireland.
[3] Via Cassia: Cassia was a form of spice, also known as Chinese or Indonesian cinnamon. So this was an ancient "spice road."
[4] Danuvia Flumen: The Danube River
[5] Rhenum Flumen: The Rhine River
[6] Praetorium Agrippinae: Valkenburg, Netherlands
[7] Colonia Veneria: Colony of the Goddess Venus; modern-day Cremona
[8] Brixia: Brescia in Italy
[9] Pons Mulvius: Milvian Bridge; also known as the Ponte Milvio
[10] Tiberis Flumen: The Tiber River which flowed through Rome.
[11] Veii: Etrurian city 16 km NNW of modern Rome
[12] Baccanae: A town along the Via Cassia; north of it the Via Amerina split and ran north, while the Via Cassia turned northwestwardly towards Sutrium; see below.
[13] Sutrium: Modern Sutri, in Viterbo province, Italy.
[14] Via Traiana Nova: the New Trajan Way
[15] Volsinii Novi: New Volsinii; modern Bolsena in Viterbo province, Italy. There is debate whether this is the same as the ancient Etruscan Velzna, or Volsinii vetus (Old Volsinii), which scholars associate with modern Orvieto. See Urbi Vetus below.
[16] Volsiniensis Lacus: Lake Bolsena, or Lago de Bolsena
[17] Urbi Vetus: also Urbs vetus, literally "Old City." This is the site of modern Orvieto, Umbria province. More likely the site of old Etruscan city of Velzna according to scholarly research. Also called Volsinii Vetus (Old Volsinii) to differentiate it from Volsinii Novi (New Volsinii). See Volsinii Novi above.
[18] Clanis Flumen: Modern River Chiana that flows through Tuscany (Etruria) and joins the Tiber not far southeast of Velzna.
[19] Clusium: Modern Chiusi.
[20] Arnus Fluvium: The modern Arno River which flows past Arezzo and through Florence.
[11] Arretium: Modern Arezzo in Italy. A Roman military station on the Via Cassia. An old Etruscan city of the Dodecapolis.
[22] Florentia: Modern Florence (Firenze) in Tuscany, Italy
[23] Bononia: Modern Bologna in Emelia-Romagna, Italy.
[24] Via Aemelia: Also Via Emelia. Literally translated as the Imitating Way or the Rivaling Way. Named after Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, the consul who had ordered the road built c. 2d Century BCE.
[25] Placentia: Modern Piacenza, in Emelia-Romagna, Italy. As Wikipedia states: Although sacked and devastated several times, the city always recovered and as late as the 6th century Procopius called it Urbs Aemilia Princeps, namely the "Princess of the cities across the Via Aemilia", meaning "first city across the Via Aemilia".
[26] Padus Flumen: The Po River, which flows through northern Italy.
[27] Via Postumia: A road named in honor of the consul Spurius Postumius Albinus who had it constructed in 148 BC. It ran from the coast at Genua (Genoa) to Dertona (Tortona), Placentia (Piacenza), Colonia Veneria (Cremona), to Verona, Vicetia (Vicenza), the Augustan Colonia Iulia Concordia (Veneto, Italy),
[28] Venetia: Also known as the X
[29] Emona: Colonia Emona (Aemona) Iulia tribu Claudia, founded 15 AD; now present day Ljubljana, Slovenia
[30] Pannonia Superior: "Upper" Pannonia. A Roman province today corresponding to lands stretching from the Sava valley from the cities of Krsko, Slovenia and Sisak, Croatia north to the River Danube from Vienna, Austria east to Esztergom, Hungary. Carnuntum (Petronell, Austria) was the provincial capital
[31] Pannonia Inferior: "Lower" Pannonia. A Roman province separated from Pannonia Superior c. 103 AD. Its chief cities included the regional capital, Aquincum (Budapest, Hungary), and the legionary camps at Mursa (Osijek, Croatia), Mursella (Petrijevci, Croatia) and Sirmium (Mitrovica, Serbia). Roughly triangular, its northern point was at the Danube bend just north of Aquincum, and its base was the valley of the Savus Flumen (River Sava) running west-to-east.
[32] Siscia: Modern Sisak, Croatia. It sits at the confluence of the Savus Flumen (River Sava), the Colapis (River Kupa combined with the confluence of the River Odra).
[33] Mursa: Colonia Aelia Mursa, a specially-privileged town elevated during Hadrian's reign, 133 AD. Seat of the governor of Lower Pannonia and seat of the Prefect of the Danube Navy. It sits on the Dravus Flumen (River Drava) not far from the Danube. Corresponds to modern Osijek, Croatia.
[34] Cornacum: Modern Sotin, Croatia. An important stronghold on the Danuvius Flumen (Danube River) not far southeast along the river from Vukovar.
[35] Opitergium: A town on the Via Postumia; modern Oderzo. It was reached by the Quadi and Marcomanni, but shortly after their attacks normal daily life resumed. One of its leading citizens, L. Ragonius Urinatius Larcius Quintianus will become vice consul during the reign of Commodus.
[36] Iulia Concordia: A Colonia in Venetia, Italy; not to be confused with other cities of the same name elsewhere in the empire. It was named after the peace achieved by Octavian following the death of Julius Caesar.
[37] Raetia: Roman province along the Danivius (Danube). Its northern border ran from Castra Batava (Passau, Germany) in the east past Castra Regina (Regensburg, Germany) to the Danube-Rhein gap near Tasgaetium (Stein-am-Rhein, Germany). The eastern border ran along the Aenus Flumen (River Inn). The western border ran roughly along the line of the Brigantinus Lacus (Bodensee) to near the St. Gotthard Pass. The southern border ran roughly through the main Alpine passes: Splügen, Julier, Reschen and Brenner. Augusta Vindelicorum (Augsburg) was the capital.
[38] Germania Superior: Roman province which ran through the northern area of modern Switzerland to Germany. Major towns included Noviodunum (Nyons, Switzerland, on Lake Geneva) furthest in the south, Vindonissa (Wingdisch, Switzerland), Argentorate (Strasbourg, France), Dibio (Dijon, France) furthest to the west, Noviomagus (Nijon, France) and other Noviomagus (Speyer, Germany) along the Rhine, Moguntiaticum (Mainz, Germany), Confluentes (Koblenz, Germany), and furthest downstream to the north, Antunnicum (Andernach, Germany).
[39] Timacum Minus: A city in Moesia Superior along the Timachus Flumen identified today as Ravna, Kuline or Gradiste.
[40] Aureliana: Modern Kostol, Serbia. This was the heart of the Metalli Aureliani, the gold-producing region of Moesia Superior.
[41] Nissus: Modern Nis, Serbia.
[42] Moesia: A pair of Roman provinces. It was divided into Moesia Superior, which corresponds roughly today to Serbia, running from Singidunum (Belgrade, Serbia) to Ratiaria (Archar, Bulgaria) along the northern Danube frontier, and as far south as Scupi (Skopje, Macedonia). Further east along the Danube ran Moesia Inferior, which extended to the mouth of the Danube at the Pontus Euxinus (Black Sea). Its major southern cities included Melta (Lovech, Bulgaria) and Odessus (Varna, Bulgaria).
[43] Dalmatia: The coastal province of the Balkans roughly equivalent to the modern coastal of Croatia (Hrvatska), Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and northern Albania (Shqiperia).
[44] Illyria: A kingdom traditionally associated with Albania on the Adriatic coast. According to Wikipedia: The main cities of the Illyrian kingdom were Lissus and Epidamnus (also known as Dyrrhacion, Dyrrhachium). In 10 AD, after its conquest by Rome, Illyria was divided into Dalmatia (the coastal province, roughly corresponding to modern Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and the southern coast of Croatia) and Pannonia (the Danube province, corresponding to northern Croatia and Hungary west and south of the Danube, as far west as Vienna, Austria, and running southwest to Ptuj and Krsko, Slovenia). Pannonia was later divided into two provinces: Pannonia Superior and Pannonia Inferior. After the time of Marcus Aurelius, Pannonia would be further divided into four parts.
[45] Tarsus: A city in modern south Turkey near the Mediterranean coast. It was renown for being a major center of the western Mithraic cult, and was also the home of Saul of Tarsus, who becomes famous as St. Paul in the 1st Century AD.
[46] Hadriaticum Mare: Adriatic Sea
[47] Sicilia: The island of Sicily, Italy
[48] The southern tip of Italia where the Bruttii tribe lived: Calabria, Italy
[49] Siculum Fretum: The Straits of Messina; these are the straights that are referred to by the surname "Fretensis"—"of the straights"
[50] Scylla: A point on Calabria at the northern end of the Siculum Fretum (Straits of Messina). It was personified as a beautiful but transformed nymph into a treacherous sea monster. Ulysses (Greek Odysseus) encountered the beastly creature and six of his men were devoured alive.
[51] Charybdis: A whirlpool off the coast of Sicilia (Sicily) in the Siculum Fretum (Straights of Messina). It was supposed to be a treacherous place to cross, and was encountered by the hero in Homer's Odyssey.
[52] Mylae: Modern Milazzo, on the island of Sicily, Italy. It was the scene of two famous naval battles. The first was in 260 BC, when the Romans defeated the Carthaginian fleet. The second battle was in 36 BC, when Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, admiral of Octavian, defeated Sextus Pompeius.
[53] Naulochus: The second great battle of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa was fought off the Naulochus cape of Sicily, Italy.
[54] Actium: The greatest battle of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, defeating the combined fleets of Marc Antony and Cleopatra VII of Egypt. It was fought off the coast of Nicopolis, Greece.
[55] Syria: The ancient land of Aram, and roughly similar to the present-day state of the same name. However, the area across the Euphrates was known as separate provinces, Mesopotamia, and later, Osrhoene. And the southern reaches of Syria extended all the way to the Tiberius Mare (the Sea of Galilee). Thus it would also include ancient Phoenicia—modern Lebanon.
[56] Judaea: The Roman province of Judaea, modern Israel, was contained on its eastern border by the Iordanes Flumen (River Jordan). It did not extend much past the tip of the Dead Sea; the border cut straight west to the Mediterranean south of Masada. South and east of Judaea would be the province of Arabia.
[57] Parthia: This was the great empire facing Rome's eastern border at the time. Its capital was Ctesiphon (20 miles from modern Baghdad, Iraq).
[58] Aquincum: Modern Budapest, or more properly, Obuda, on the western bank of the Danube.
[59] Castra Regina: Modern Regensburg, Austria.
[60] Via Flaminia: A great northern road from Rome, later known in the Middle Ages as the "Ravenna Road."
[61] Ad Portum: A town at the juncture of the Via Annia and Via Popillia near the mouth of the Meduacus Maior Flumen (River Brenta). To the west lay the crossroads of Meduacus Maior, and beyond that Patavium (Padua, Italy). To the south was Meduacus Minor.
[62] Via Popilia: The coastal road through the northern Italian area of Aemilia along the northern Hadriaticum Mare (Adriatic Sea). It passed through the salt marsh area known as the Septem Maria (Seven Seas)—named after the many lakes along the mouths of the Padus (Po) and Athesis (Adige) rivers. The road began where the Via Flaminia left off at Ariminum and ran up the coast to where it plowed into the Via Annia (q.v.) at Ad Portus (q.v.).
[63] Via Annia: The great and ancient road built by the Praetor Titus Annius Rufus (731 BC) which connected Atria (Adria, Italy), Patavium (Padua), Iulia Concordia (ancient, now in ruins), and Aquileia.
[64] Iulia Concordia: One of many cities by this name. This was a colonia founded in Veneto by Octavian to honor Julius Caesar and celebrate the concord of the Triumvirate. It sat at the juncture of the Via Postumia and the Via Annia.
[65] Aquileia: A city on the Adriatic coast along the Via Annia (q.v.)
[66] Alpes Iuliae: The Julian Alps dividing Italy from the Balkans.
[67] Emona: Modern Ljublajana, Slovenia.
* * *
References
[Author's note: in transcribing this to the Web, the URLs for the following references were lost. Furthermore, there are more print publication references to be made. While some corrections have been attempted already, additional currecitons, additions and updates are forthcoming.]
Aquileia, Italy (Official Town Site)
http://www.aquileia.it/
Beard, Henry (1990). Latin for All Occasions. Villard Books
ISBN 0-394-58660-3
Centre of Behavioural & Forensic Toxicology. Padova: A Historical Outline and the Growth of the City. Padua Hospital-Univerity of Padova, Italy.
http://www.cbft.unipd.it/pdtour/history.html
Columbia Encyclopedia. Mylae
http://columbia.thefreedictionary.com/Mylae
Columbia Encyclopedia, Sextus Pompeius
http://columbia.thefreedictionary.com/Sextus+Pompeius
Etruscan Dictionary CI-CV
http://etruscans1.tripod.com/Language/EtruscanCI.html
Knjazevac, Timacum Minus (History)
http://www.knjazevac.co.yu/English/Istorija/Timacum.html
Map24, for distances calculated between cities in Slovenia, Croatia, and elsewhere in Europe
http://www.de.map24.com/
McCrary, Kurt (2004-2006). History of Sotting - Sotin (Cornacum)
http://www.dvhh.org/sotting/history/history-1.htm
MultiMap, for distances calculated between cities in Italy.
http://www.multimap.com
Multimedia Plan. Carnuntum, Virtual Tour
http://www.multimediaplan.at/carnuntum/Englisch/englisch.html
The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites, Opitergium, Veneto, Italy
http://icarus.umkc.edu/sandbox/perseus/pecs/page.3326.a.php
PRAGRIS
http://www.pragris.com/
The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites, Iulia Concordia, Veneto, Italy
http://icarus.umkc.edu/sandbox/perseus/pecs/page.2129.a.php
The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites, Aquileia, Udine, Veneto, Italy
http://icarus.umkc.edu/sandbox/perseus/pecs/page.368.a.php
Ritterling, Emil. Legio X Fretensis
http://www.livius.org/le-lh/legio/x_fretensis.html
UNRV History, Pannonia
http://www.unrv.com/provinces/pannonia.php
Mysterious Etruscans. Veii
http://www.mysteriousetruscans.com/veii.html
Mysterious Etruscans. Velzna (Roman Volsinii)
http://www.mysteriousetruscans.com/velzna.html
Ovid. Fasti, Book IV
http://www.tkline.freeserve.co.uk/OvidFastiBkFour.htm#_Toc69367847
sistema Bibliotecario Museale provinciale (sBMp) La Via Annia. Provincia di Venezia, Assessorato alla Cultura
http://sbmp.provincia.venezia.it/mir/english/musei/annia.htm
Springer, Zvonko (1999). Osijek - Essek - Mursa
http://www.cosy.sbg.ac.at/~zzspri/travels/osijek/OSIJEKAlt4.html
Springer, Zvonko (1999). Regional History of Vukovar and Ilok
http://www.hr/darko/etf/vukov.html
WebExhibits, The Early Roman Calendar
http://webexhibits.org/calendars/calendar-roman.html
Wikipedia. Aquileia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquileia
Wikipedia, Ara Pacis
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ara_Pacis
Wikipedia. Arezzo
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arezzo
Wikipedia. Arno River
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arno_river
Wikipedia. Battle of Actium
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Actium
Wikipedia. Battle of Naulochus
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Naulochus
Wikipedia. Bologna (Bononia)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bologna
Wikipedia. Carnuntum
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnuntum
Wikipedia. Cassia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassia
Wikipedia. Charybdis
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charybdis
Wikipedia. Clusium
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clusium
Wikipedia. Cursus Publicus
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cursus_publicus
Wikipedia. Emona
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emona
Wikipedia. Hadrian
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadrian
Wikipedia. Illyria
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illyria
Wikipedia. Julian Alps
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_Alps
Wikipedia. Marcus Aemelius Lepidus (187 BC)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aemilius_Lepidus_%28187_BC%29
Wikipedia. Marcus Aurelius
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius
Wikipedia. Milvian Bridge
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milvian_Bridge
Wikipedia, Orvieto
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orvieto
Wikipedia. Ovid
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovid
Wikipedia. Pannonia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pannonia
Wikipedia. Parthia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthia
Wikipedia. Piacenza (Placentia)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piacenza
Wikipedia. Po River (Padus Flumen)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Po_River
Wikipedia. Scylla
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scylla
Wikipedia. Sisak (Siscia)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siscia
Wikipedia. Seven Seas
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_seas
Wikipedia. Sutri (Sutrium)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutrium
Wikipedia. Veii
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veii
Wikipedia. Via Aemilia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Via_Aemilia
Wikipedia. Via Flaminia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Via_Flaminia
Wikipedia. Via Popilia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Via_Popilia
Wikipedia. Via Postumia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Via_Postumia
Wolfram, Herwig; Thomas Dunlap (translator) (2000) The Germanic Empire and Its Peoples. University of California Press
ISBN 0-520-08511-6
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